Biology program for entrance tests at Volgograd State Medical University of the Ministry of Health of Russia

Biology program for entrance tests at Volgograd State Medical University of the Ministry of Health of Russia

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To conduct entrance examinations in the traditional form for certain categories of citizens upon admission to the Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education VolgSMU of the Ministry of Health of Russia

INTRODUCTION

• General biology is a subject about the basic and common patterns of life phenomena for all organisms.
• The importance of general biology for medicine and agriculture.
• Basic characteristics of living things.
• Levels of organization of living matter.

I. BOTANY

Botany is the science of plants. The plant world as an integral part of nature, its diversity and distribution on Earth.

• Cellular structure of a plant.
  • Structure of a plant cell (review from the cytology course).
  • Tissues of organs plants in connection with the functions they perform.
  • Vegetative organs of an angiosperm: root, stem, leaf.
  • Generative organs: flower (inflorescence), fruit, seed.
  • Methods of dispersal of fruits and seeds in nature.
    

Root.

• Root functions. Root development from the embryonic rootlet of a seed.
• Types of roots (main, lateral, adventitious).
• Types of root systems (taproot and fibrous).
• Root zones.
• Root growth.
• External and internal structure of the root of monocots and dicots.
• Absorption of water and mineral salts by roots, necessary for the plant.
• The importance of soil cultivation, fertilization, watering, loosening for the life of cultivated plants.
• Root modifications.
  

Stem.

• Functions of the stem.
• Shoot and its parts.
• Bud. Vegetative, floral, mixed buds.
• Their structure and location on the stem.
• Development of a shoot from a bud.
• Stem growth in length.
• Shoot branching.
• Diversity of shoots: erect, climbing, creeping, clinging.
• Anatomical structure of herbaceous and woody stems of dicotyledons.
• Stem growth in thickness.
• Formation of annual rings.
• Stem of monocotyledons.
• Movement of mineral and organic substances along the stem.
• Modified shoots: rhizome, stolons, tuber, bulb, their structure, biological and economic meaning.
  

Sheet.

• Functions of the leaf.
• External structure of the leaf (leaf blade, petiole, base, stipules).
• Venation of leaves. Simple and compound leaves.
• Leaf arrangement. Anatomical structure of the leaf in relation to its functions.
• Skin and stomata, leaf pulp (columnar and spongy tissues), vascular bundles.
• Leaf movement.
• Leaf mosaic.
• Photosynthesis (repeat from the Cytology section).
• Leaf respiration. Water evaporation by leaves.
• Leaf modifications.
• Leaf lifespan.
• Leaf fall.
• The importance of leaves for plants.
• The role of green plants in nature and human life and their protection.
  

Vegetative propagation of flowering plants.

• Reproduction of plants by means of shoots, roots, leaves in nature and plant growing (modified shoots, stem and root cuttings, layering, division of the bush, grafting).
• Biological and economic significance of vegetative propagation.

Flower, fruit, seed.

• A flower is an organ of seed reproduction.
• The structure of a flower: peduncle, receptacle, perianth (calyx and corolla), stamens – androecium, pistil (or pistils) – gynoecium. The structure of the stamen and pistil.
• Flowers are unisexual and bisexual.
• Monoecious and dioecious plants.
• Inflorescences and their biological significance.
• Cross-pollination by insects and wind.
• Self-pollination. Artificial pollination.
• Pollen germination.
• Double Fertilization in flowering plants and its mechanism.
• Formation of seed and fruit.
  

Seed. 

• Functions of seeds.
• Structure of seeds (using dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous plants as examples).
• Composition of seeds.
• Conditions for seed germination.
• Seed respiration.
• Nutrition and growth of the seedling.
  

Fruit. 

• Fruit functions.
• Fruit variety: monocarpous, apocarpous, coenocarpous and pseudomonocarpous (pseudomonocarpous).
• Number of fruits and seeds in different plants.
• Importance of flowers, fruits and seeds in nature and human life.
• Classification of plants.
• Elementary concepts of systematic (taxonomic) categories (species, genus, family, class, division).
• The meaning of international plant names.
  

The kingdom of the pellet. Department “Bacteria”.

• General characteristics.
• Structure of a prokaryotic cell (review from the cytology course).
• Structure and vital activity of bacteria.
• Classification of bacteria by shape, type of nutrition, type of respiration. Examples.
• Reproduction of bacteria.
• Spread of bacteria.
• Fermentation bacteria and putrefactive bacteria.
• Symbiosis of nodule bacteria and legumes.
• Pathogenic bacteria and the fight against them.
• The role of bacteria in nature, medicine, agriculture and industry.
  

Kingdom of Mushrooms. Department of Real Mushrooms.

• General characteristics.
• Lower and Higher fungi.
• Mushrooms, their structure, nutrition and reproduction.
  • Living conditions of the mushroom in the forest.
  • Connection of mushrooms with roots (mycorrhiza).
  • Edible and poisonous mushrooms.
• Mold fungi (mucor and penicillium).
  • Structure, reproduction, features, life activities.
• Yeast. Structure, reproduction, features of vital activity.
  • Parasitic fungi that cause plant diseases (smut, ergot, tinder fungi).
  • Structure, nutrition, reproduction.
• The role of mushrooms in nature and in human life.
  

The kingdom of plants. Department “Green algae”.

• General characteristics.
• Unicellular algae (Chlamydomonas, Chlorella).
• Structure and features of life activity.
• Filamentous algae.
• Asexual and sexual reproduction of algae.
• Distribution of algae in water and on land.
• The importance of algae in nature and economy.
  

Department “Lichens”. 

• Lichens as symbiotic organisms.
• General characteristics.
• Structure of the lichen thallus. Nutrition.
• Reproduction.
• Crustose, foliose, fruticose lichens.
• The role of lichens in nature and life human.
  

Department “Bryophytes”.

• General characteristics.
• Taxonomy.
• Green mosses.
• Structure, reproduction and development cycle of cuckoo flax.
• Concepts of sporophyte and gametophyte.
• Sphagnum moss.
• Swamping.
• Peat formation, its importance.
  

Division “Lycophyta”.

• General characteristics.
• Club moss.
• Structure, reproduction, development cycle.
• The meaning of club mosses.
  

Division “Equisetum”.

• General characteristics.
• Horsetail.
• Structure, reproduction, development cycle.
• Meaning horsetail.
  

Division “Fernoides”.

• General characteristics.
• Male shield fern. Structure, reproduction and development cycle.
• The importance of ferns in nature and human life.
  

Department “Gymnosperms”.

• General characteristics.
• Structure, reproduction and development cycle using pine as an example.
• Male and female cones.
• Pollen. Ovules.
• Pollen germination, pollen tube growth and fertilization.
• Importance in nature and economy.
  

Angiosperms. (Flowering plants).

• The dominance of angiosperms in the modern flora and their advantage over other plant groups.
• The diversity of wild and cultivated flowering plants.
• The adaptation of angiosperms to various living conditions on Earth.
  

Class “Dicotyledonous plants”. 

• General characteristics.
• Families: Cruciferae, Rosaceae, Legumes, Solanaceae, Asteraceae.
  

Class “Monocotyledonous plants”. 

• General characteristics.
• Families: Liliaceae, Poaceae.
  

Development of the plant world on Earth.

• The increasing complexity of plant structure in the process of historical development in connection with the transition from an aquatic to a terrestrial way of life.
• The main stages of plant development on Earth (the time of bacteria, algae, bryophytes, lycopods, horsetails, ferns, gymnosperms and angiosperms).
  

II. ZOOLOGY

• Zoology is the science of animals.
• The importance of animals in nature and human life.
• Classification of animals.
• Concept of species, genus, family, order, class and type.
• Similarities and differences between plants and animals.
  

Type Protozoa. 

• General characteristics of the type.
• Taxonomy.
  

Class Sarcodaceae. 
Common amoeba.

• Habitat.
• External and internal structure.
• Cytoplasm.
• Nucleus.
• Movement.
• Nutrition.
• Respiration.
• Excretion.
• Osmoregulation.
• Reproduction.
• Encystment.
• Types of amoebas that cause diseases in humans.
  

Class Flagellates. 

• Euglena viridis as a unicellular organism combining the characteristics of animals and plants.
• Volvox is a colonial organism. Evolutionary significance of euglenoids and volvoxids.
• Representatives of flagellates having medical meaning.
  

Class Sporozoa. 

• Malarial plasmodium as a causative agent of malaria.
• General concept of host change in the development cycle.
• Method of human infection with malaria. Measures to combat malaria. 
  

Class Ciliates.

• Paramecium caudatum as a more complex unicellular animal.
• Habitat.
• Structure.
• Peculiarities of life processes.
• Reproduction.
• Irritability.
• Ciliates causing human disease.
  

Type Coelenterates. 

• General characteristics of the type.
• Taxonomy.
• Environment habitat.
• The importance of coelenterates

Class Hydroids. 

• Freshwater hydra.
• External and internal structure.
• Radial symmetry.
• Hydra nutrition.
• Respiration.
• Nervous system.
• Regeneration.
• Asexual and sexual reproduction.
• Marine hydroids and their importance.
  

Class Scyphozoa. 

• General characteristics of the class.
• Representatives are scyphozoan jellyfish.
  

Class Coral polyps. 

• General characteristics of the class.
• Representatives. Signs of complication in organization.
• The significance of coral polyps.
  

Type Flatworms. 

• General characteristics of the type.
• Taxonomy.
  

Class Ciliated worms. 

• General characteristics of the class.
• White planaria as a representative of free-living worms.
• Habitat.
• External and internal structure.
• Bilateral symmetry.
• Musculature.
• Nutrition.
• Respiration.
• Excretion.
• Nervous system and sensory organs.
• Reproduction.
• Regeneration.
  

Class Flukes. 

• General characteristics of the class.
• Liver fluke.
• External and internal structure.
• Adaptations to parasitism.
• Change of hosts in the development cycle.
• Routes of infection.
• Protection from infection
  

Class Tapeworms. 

• General characteristics of the class.
• Tapeworms (pork and bovine).
• Parasitic lifestyle.
• Features of external and internal structure.
• Development cycles and change of hosts.
• Measures to prevent infection.
  

• Type Roundworms. 
  • General characteristics of the type.
  • Ascaris.
    • Habitat.
    • External and internal structure.
    • Reproduction and development of ascaris.
    • Routes of infection.
    • Prevention.
    • Pinworm as a representative of roundworms.
    • Development cycle.
    • Protection from infection.
      

• Type Annelids. 
  • General characteristics of the type.
  • Taxonomy.
    

Class Polychaeta. 

• Nereid.
• External and internal structure.
• Main differences from earthworms.
• The importance of polychaeta.

Class Oligochaeta. 

• Earthworm.
• Habitat.
• External and internal structure.
• Skin-muscular sac.
• Digestive, circulatory, excretory systems.
• Nervous system.
• Reproduction.
• Regeneration.
• The importance of earthworms in soil formation.
  

• Type Mollusks. 
  • General characteristics of the type.
  • Taxonomy.
    

Class Gastropods. 

• Large pond snail.
• Habitat.
• External and internal structure.
• Movement.
• Features of life processes.
• Reproduction.
• The importance of gastropods.
  

Class Bivalves. 

• Toothless (or Pearl mussel).
• Habitat.
• External and internal structure.
• Movement.
• Reproduction.
• The importance of bivalves.
  

• Type Arthropoda. 
  • General characteristics of the type.
  • Taxonomy.
    

Class Crustacea. 

• Crayfish.
• Habitat.
• External structure.
• Internal structure.
• Features of life processes.
• Reproduction.
• Other crustaceans.
• Medical value.
• Importance in fish nutrition.
• Commercial crustaceans.
  

Class Arachnida. 

• Cross spider.
• Habitat.
• External and internal structure of the Cross spider.
• Breathing, nutrition, reproduction.
• Web and its structure.
• Ticks, their medical significance.
• Measures to protect humans from ticks.
  

Class Insects. 

• General characteristics of the class.
• Habitat. External and internal structure of an insect using the example of a May beetle.
• Features of life activity.
• Reproduction.
• Types of insect development. Medical significance insects.
  

• Type Chordata. 
  • General characteristics of the genus.
  • Taxonomy.
    

Class Lancelet. 

• Lancelet as a form close to the ancestors of vertebrates.
• Habitat. External and internal structure.
• Reproduction.
• Lifestyle.
• Similarities of Lancelet with invertebrates and vertebrates.
  

Class Fish. 

• General characteristics of the class.
• External and internal structure of fish using the river perch as an example.
• Reproduction and development. 
  

Class Amphibians. 

• General characteristics of the class.
• Taxonomy.
• External and internal structure of a frog (using any species as an example).
• Features of the habitat.
• The importance of skin in breathing.
• Reproduction and development of frogs (tadpoles, their similarity to fish).
• The diversity of amphibians and their importance. The origin of amphibians.
  

Class Reptiles. 

• General characteristics of the class.
• Taxonomy.
• External and internal structure of the Sand lizard.
• Adaptations to life in the terrestrial environment.
• Reproduction. Regeneration.
• Origin.
  

Class Birds. 

• General characteristics of the class.
• External and internal structure of the pigeon.
• Adaptation to flight. Features of life processes.
• Reproduction and development. Origin of birds.
• The role of birds in nature and their importance in human life.
  

Class Mammalia. 

• General characteristics of the class.
• Taxonomy.
• Features of the external and internal structure of mammals using the example of a dog.
• Reproduction and development.
• Origin of mammals.
• The importance of mammals in nature and life human.
  

III. HUMAN ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE

• Human anatomy, physiology and hygiene are interconnected sciences that study the structure, functions of the human body and the conditions for maintaining its health.
• The importance of knowledge of human anatomy, physiology and hygiene.
  

General overview of the human body.

• General introduction to the human body.
• The human body as a single, whole system.
• The main types of tissue (epithelial, connective, muscular, nervous) and their properties.
• Concepts of nervous and humoral regulation.
  

Endocrine glands.

• The structure and functions of the endocrine glands (pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, thymus gland, endocrine part of the pancreas and sex glands).
• Hormones and their importance for the body.
• The role of humoral regulation in the body.
• Diseases associated with dysfunction of the endocrine glands.
  

Nervous system.

• The structure and significance of the nervous system.
• Reflex.
  • Reflex arc.
• Central nervous system.
• The structure and functions of the spinal cord.
• The structure and functions of the parts of the brain.
• The highest part of the brain is the cerebral cortex.
• The significance of the cerebral cortex. The autonomic nervous system.
  

Musculoskeletal system.

• Functions of the musculoskeletal system.
• Structure of the human skeleton.
• Features of its structure in connection with upright posture and labor activity.
• Structure and composition of bones.
• Organic and inorganic bone substance.
• Growth of bones in thickness.
• Bone connections: continuous, semi-mobile, joints.
• First aid for fractures, dislocations and sprains.
  

–Muscles, 
their structure and functions.

• The human muscular system.
• Reflex nature of muscle activity.
• The influence of rhythm and load on muscle performance.
• Fatigue.
• Features of the musculoskeletal system of children and adolescents.
• The importance of physical education and sports for the correct formation of the skeleton and muscles.
• Prevention of spinal curvature and flatfoot development.
• Hygiene of physical labor.
  

The internal environment of the body: 

blood, tissue fluid and lymph. Relative constancy of the internal environment of the body. Tissue fluid, its importance.

• Blood. 
  • Blood functions.
  • Blood composition: plasma, formed elements.
  • The role of erythrocytes in gas transfer.
  • Blood clotting as a protective reaction of the body.
  • Functions of leukocytes.
  • Anemia.
  • I.I. Mechnikov’s teaching on the protective properties of blood.
  • Immunity and its types.
  • Prevention of HIV infection and AIDS.
  • Blood groups.
  • Blood transfusion and its meaning.
    

The circulatory system.

• Functions of the circulatory system.
• The large and small circles of blood circulation.
• Arteries, capillaries and veins.
• The heart, its structure and function.
  • Automaticity of the heart.
  • Pulse.
• Blood pressure and blood flow velocity in different parts of the bloodstream.
• First aid for arterial and venous bleeding.
• The concept of nervous and humoral regulation of the heart and blood vessels.
• Lymph formation.
  • Lymph movement in the lymphatic vessels.
• Cardiovascular hygiene.
  

Respiratory system.

• The importance of breathing.
• The structure and functions of the respiratory system.
• The vocal apparatus.
• Gas exchange in the lungs and tissues.
• Respiratory movements.
• Vital capacity of the lungs.
• Nervous and humoral regulation of breathing.
• Hygiene of the respiratory system.
• The harmful effects of smoking on the respiratory system. 
  

Digestive system.

• Nutrients and food products.
• Digestion.
• Enzymes and their role in digestion.
• The structure of the digestive organs.
• Digestion in the oral cavity.
• Swallowing.
• I. P. Pavlov’s works on the study of the salivary glands.
• Digestion in the stomach.
• The concept of neurohumoral regulation of gastric juice secretion.
• I. P. Pavlov’s works on the study of digestion in the stomach.
• The liver and pancreas and their role in digestion.
• Changes in nutrients in the intestine.
• Absorption.
• Hygiene nutrition.
  

Metabolism.

• Water and salt metabolism.
• Metabolism of proteins, fats and carbohydrates in the body.
• Assimilation and dissimilation as two sides of a single metabolic process.
• Vitamins.
  • The importance of vitamins.
  • Diseases associated with a lack of vitamins in food.
• The body’s need for proteins, fats, carbohydrates, water and salts.
• Nutrition standards.
• Caloric content of the diet.
• Features of nutrition during the growth period.
• The importance of proper nutrition for the body.
  

Excretory system.

• Functions of the excretory organs.
• Excretion of metabolic products.
• Organs of the urinary system.
• Structure and function of the kidneys.
• The importance of the excretory organs in maintaining the constancy of the internal environment of the body.
  

Skin. 

• Skin functions. Skin structure.
• Skin derivatives.
• The role of skin in heat exchange regulation.
• First aid for frostbite, burns, heat stroke and sunstroke.
• The importance of body hardening.
• Natural hardening factors and rules for using them. Skin and clothing hygiene.
  

Analyzers.

• I. P. Pavlov’s teaching on analyzers.
• The importance of analyzers for perceiving the surrounding world.
• Visual analyzer.
  • The structure of the eye.
  • The light-sensitive apparatus of the eye.
  • Construction of an image on the retina.
  • Nearsightedness, farsightedness and their correction.
  • Vision hygiene.
    

• Auditory analyzer.
  • Structure and hygiene of the hearing organ.
  • Mechanism of sound perception.
• Vestibular apparatus.
• Touch.
• Olfaction and taste.
  

Higher nervous activity.

• The role of I. M. Sechenov in the development of the theory of higher nervous activity. I. P. Pavlov’s theory of conditioned reflexes.
• Conditioned and unconditioned reflexes.
  • Formation and inhibition of conditioned reflexes.
  • Reflexes are the basis of animal behavior.
• Features of higher nervous activity in humans.
  • The first and second signal systems.
• Hygiene of mental work.
• Daily routine.
  • Work and rest routine.
• Sleep.
  • Sleep hygiene.
• The effect of tobacco and alcohol on the nervous system.
  

Development of the human body.

• Sex glands.
  • Sex cells, their structure and development.
• Fertilization.
  • Development of the human embryo.
• Features of the development of children’s and adolescent organisms.
• The importance of physical culture and sports for the normal development and strengthening of the body.
  

II. GENERAL BIOLOGY

BASICS OF CYTOLOGY

• The cell is an elementary living system that underlies the structure and development of organisms.
• History of the discovery of the cell.
• Basic provisions of the cell theory.
• The main structural components of the eukaryotic cell: the outer cell membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus. Structure and functions.
• Organelles and inclusions of the cytoplasm.
• Structure and functions.
• Similarities and differences between plant and animal cells.
• Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
• Similarities and differences.
  

Chemical organization of the cell. 

• Content of chemical elements in the cell.
• Water and other inorganic substances and their role in cell life.
• Organic matter.
  • Carbohydrates.
    • Mono- and polysaccharides.
    • Functions of carbohydrates in the cell.
  • Lipids.
    • Functions lipids in the cell.
  • Proteins as biopolymers.
    • Functions of proteins in the cell.
    • Amino acids, their structure and properties.
    • Primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures of the protein molecule.
  • Enzymes, their role in life processes.
  • Nucleic acids.
    • DNA and RNA as biopolymers. Structure and functions of DNA.
    • The principle of complementarity.
    • Reduplication of DNA, RNA.
    • Structure and types of RNA.
  • ATP.
    • ATP content in the cell.
    • Macroergic bonds in ATP.
    • The importance of ATP in cell vital activity.
      

• Metabolism and energy in the cell. 
  • Plastic and energy metabolism is the basis of cell life.
  • Energy metabolism in the cell and its essence.
  • The importance of ATP in energy metabolism.
    

• Plastic metabolism. 
  • Autotrophic and heterotrophic cells.
  • Photosynthesis.
    • Biological meaning of photosynthesis.
    • Chloroplasts.
    • Relationship between structure and function.
    • Light and dark phases of photosynthesis.
  • Chemosynthesis.
    

• Protein biosynthesis. 
  • The role of nucleic acids in this process.
  • The gene and its role in protein biosynthesis.
  • DNA code.
  • Reactions of matrix synthesis.
  • The role of enzymes in the implementation of protein biosynthesis.
  • The importance of ATP in this process.
  • The relationship between the processes of energy and plastic metabolism in the cell.
    

• Non-cellular life forms. 
  • Viruses.
    • Their ultramicroscopic organization, significance and role in nature.
    • Bacteriophages.
    • Viral diseases of humans, animals and plants.
    • HIV infection, AIDS.
      

Reproduction and individual development of organisms.

• Cell division is a biological process underlying the reproduction and individual development of organisms.
• Mitotic cycle.
• DNA doubling. Phases of mitosis.
• Species constancy of the number of chromosomes.
• Chromosomes, their structure.
• Haploid and diploid sets of chromosomes.
• Constancy of the amount of DNA in the nucleus.
• Biological meaning of mitosis.
• Amitosis as a form of division of the interphase nucleus, not accompanied by uniform distribution of hereditary material.
• Meiosis.
  • Biological meaning of meiosis
• Forms of reproduction of organisms.
  • Asexual and sexual reproduction.
  • Features of the development of eggs and spermatozoa (gametogenesis).
  • Structure and functions of sex cells.
  • Insemination, fertilization (external and internal).

• Parthenogenesis.
  • Types of parthenogenesis.
  • Biological significance.
  • Individual development of organisms.
  • Development of the embryo (using animals as an example).
  • Postembryonic development.
  • Direct and indirect development.
  • Harmful effects of alcohol and nicotine on the development of the organism.
    

BASICS OF GENETICS

• Genetics is the science of heredity and variability.
• Subject, tasks and methods of genetics.
• The importance of genetics.
• Basic patterns of transmission of hereditary traits.
• Hybridological method of studying heredity.
• Patterns of inheritance established by G. Mendel.
• Monohybrid crossing.
• Mendel’s first law.
• Uniformity of the first generation.
• Dominant and recessive traits.
• Homozygote and heterozygote.
• Allelic and non-allelic genes.
• Phenotype and genotype.
• Mendel’s second law.
• Segregation in the second generation.
• Analytical crossing.
• Hypothesis of “gamete purity”.
• Dihybrid crossing. Mendel’s third law.
• Statistical character phenomena of splitting.
• Cytological foundations of Mendel’s laws.
• T. Morgan’s chromosomal theory of heredity.
• The phenomenon of linked inheritance.
• Chromosome crossing in meiosis – the process of linkage violation.
• Sex genetics. Sex-linked inheritance.
• Genotype as a holistic historically developed system.
• Interaction of allelic genes.
• Multiple allelism. Inheritance of blood groups according to the ABO system.
• Interaction of non-allelic genes.
• Patterns of variability.
• The role of genotype and environmental conditions in phenotype formation.
• Variability and its forms.
• Modification variability.
• Reaction norm.
• Statistical patterns of modification variability.
• Variation series and variation curve.
• Genotypic variability.
• Combinative variability.
• Mutational variability.
• Classification of mutation.
• Gene, genomic and chromosomal mutations.
• Mutagenic factors.
• Experimental production of mutations.
• Mutations as material for artificial and natural selection.
• Pollution of the natural environment with mutagens and its consequences.
• The law of homologous series in hereditary variability by N. I. Vavilov.
• The importance of genetics for medicine and health care.
• The harmful effects of nicotine, alcohol and other drugs on human heredity.
• Methods for studying human heredity.
• Genetics and the theory of evolution.
• Population genetics.
• Forms of natural selection: driving and stabilizing.
  

EVOLUTIONARY TEACHING

• General characteristics of biology in the pre-Darwinian period.
• The dominance in science of metaphysical ideas about the immutability of nature and “original expediency”.
• The works of Carl Linnaeus on the taxonomy of plants and animals, their significance.
• The teachings of J. B. Lamarck on the evolution of the organic world and its significance.
• The first Russian evolutionists.
• Prerequisites for the emergence of Charles Darwin’s teaching.
• Socio-economic prerequisites.
• Advances in biology in the first half of the 19th century.
• Advances in agriculture in breeding breeds of domestic animals and varieties of cultivated plants.
• Works of C. Darwin.
• The main provisions of the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin.
• The importance of the theory for the development of natural science.
• The driving forces of evolution.
• Heredity.
  • Variability, types of variability.
  • Natural selection.
  • The leading role of natural selection in evolution.
  • The struggle for existence and its forms.
  • Artificial selection and hereditary variability – the basis for breeding breeds of domestic animals and varieties of cultivated plants.
  • Common and different between artificial and natural selection.
  • The adaptive nature of evolution.
  • Adaptation of organisms to conditions habitat.
  • Divergent nature of evolution.
  • Convergence.
  • Microevolution.
  • Species, its criteria.
    • Population – a form of existence of species.
    • Speciation – the result of microevolution.
  • Paths of speciation.
  • The main paths and directions of evolution of the organic world.
  • Biological progress and biological regression.
  • Ways to achieve biological progress.
    

DEVELOPMENT OF THE ORGANIC WORLD

• The main evidence of the evolution of the organic world: cytological, comparative anatomical, embryological and paleontological.
• Comparative study of the structure of modern animals and plants in order to prove their historical development.
• Homology and analogy.
• Rudiments and atavisms in the structure of modern organisms as evidence of their evolution.
• Similarity of the embryonic development of organisms as evidence of the unity of their origin.
• The biogenetic law of Müller-Haeckel.
  

The emergence of life on Earth.

• Pre-scientific ideas about the origin of life.
• The doctrine of spontaneous generation.
• The works of Redi and Pasteur, which proved the impossibility of the spontaneous generation of life.
• The theory of the introduction of life to Earth from other cosmic bodies.
• Modern theories of the origin of life on
• Earth from inanimate bodies (A. I. Oparin and others).
  

ORIGIN OF MAN

• C. Darwin on the origin of man from animals. F. Engels on the role of labor in the transformation of ancient apes into man.
• Driving forces of anthropogenesis: social and biological factors.
• The role of biological and social factors in human evolution.
• Fossil remains of man.
• Finds in Tanzania.
• The earliest people (Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus, Heidelberg man).
• Ancient people (Neanderthals). Fossil remains of modern people (Cro-Magnons).
• The leading role of the laws of social life in the social progress of humanity.
• The unity of the origin of human races.
• The anti-scientific, reactionary essence of “social Darwinism” and racism.
  

BASICS OF ECOLOGY

• Ecology is a science about the patterns of relationships between organisms and the environment.
• Tasks of ecology. Environment and ecological factors.
• Adaptation of an organism (species) to abiotic and biotic environmental factors.
• Complex impact of factors on the organism.
• Main climatic factors (light, temperature, humidity) and their impact on the organism.
• Limiting factors. Human activity as an ecological factor.
• Adaptations of plants and animals to the seasonal rhythm of external conditions.
• Seasonality in nature. State of winter dormancy.
• Cold resistance. Factors controlling seasonal development.
• Photoperiodism phenomena in plants and animals.
• Population.
  • Factors causing changes in population size.
• Biogeocenosis.
• Examples – freshwater reservoir, oak grove.
• Biotic factors.
• Interrelation of populations in a biogeocenosis.
• Forms of biotic connections.
• Food chains.
• Rules of the ecological pyramid.
• Self-regulation in a biogenocenosis.
• Change of biogenocenoses.
• Creation of artificial biogeocenoses as a result of targeted human economic activity.
• Protection of biogeocenoses.
  

FUNDAMENTALS OF THE TEACHING ABOUT THE BIOSPHERE

• The biosphere and its boundaries.
• Life density.
• Land surface biomass.
• Soil biomass.
• World ocean biomass.
• Living matter, its gas, concentration, oxidation and reduction functions.
• The cycle of substances and energy conversion in the biosphere.
• V.I.Vernadsky on the origin of the biosphere. Noosphere.

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